A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ph.D., or DPhil; Latin philosophiae doctor or doctor philosophiae) is the most common degree at the highest academic level awarded following a course of study. PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Because it is an earned research degree, those studying for a PhD are required to produce original research Analysis of PhD Theses. Over a three-year time period, Dr Ian Brailsford, a then Postgraduate Learning Adviser at the University of Auckland, analysed doctoral thesis submitted to his university’s library. The PhD theses which formed the basis of his analysis were produced between to and showed A thesis, or dissertation (abbreviated diss.), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings. In some contexts, the word "thesis" or a cognate is used for part of a bachelor's or master's course, while "dissertation" is normally applied to a doctorate.. This is the typical arrangement in
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A Doctor of Philosophy PhDPh. PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Because it is an earned research degree, those studying for a PhD are required to produce original research that expands the boundaries of knowledge, normally in the form of a thesis or dissertation, phd thesis university of, and defend their work against experts in the field. The completion of a PhD is often a requirement for employment as a university professorresearcheror scientist in phd thesis university of fields.
Those who teach at phd thesis university of or work in academic, educational, or research fields are usually addressed by this title "professionally and socially in a salutation or conversation.
It is, however, considered incorrect to use both the title and post-nominals at the same time. The specific requirements to earn a PhD degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, and time period, from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions or may be granted a master's degree en route to the doctoral degree.
Sometimes this status is also colloquially known as "PhD ABD," meaning " All But Dissertation. A PhD candidate must submit a project, thesis, or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal.
Universities sometimes award other types of doctorate besides the PhD, such as the Doctor of Musical Arts D. for music performers, Doctor of Juridical Science S. for legal scholars and the Doctor of Education Ed. for studies in education. In the European Universities Association defined the "Salzburg Principles," 10 basic principles for third-cycle degrees doctorates within the Bologna Process.
In the context of the Doctor of Philosophy and other similarly titled degrees, the term "philosophy" does not refer to the field or academic discipline of philosophybut is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, which is "love of wisdom.
The degree is abbreviated PhD sometimes Ph. In the universities of Medieval Europestudy was organized in four faculties: the basic faculty of arts, and the three higher faculties of theology, medicine, and law canon law and civil law, phd thesis university of. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees bachelor of arts, of theology, of laws, of medicine and final degrees. The doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current PhD degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research.
No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements and examinations. Besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. Originally this was a license to teach, awarded shortly before the award of the master's or doctoral degree by the diocese in which the university was located, but later it evolved into an academic degree in its own right, in particular in the continental universities.
According to Keith Allan Noblethe first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around There were no PhDs in Germany before the s when they gradually started replacing the MA as the highest academic degree; arguably, phd thesis university of, one of the earliest German PhD holders is Erhard Weigel Dr. In theory, the full course of studies might, for example, lead in succession to the degrees of Bachelor of ArtsLicentiate of ArtsMaster of Artsor Bachelor of Medicinephd thesis university of, Licentiate of Medicine, or Doctor of Medicinephd thesis university of, but before the early modern era, many exceptions to this existed.
Most students left the university without becoming masters of arts, whereas regulars members of monastic orders could skip the arts faculty entirely. This situation changed in the early 19th century through the educational reforms in Phd thesis university of, most strongly embodied in the model of the University of Berlinfounded and controlled by the Prussian government in The arts faculty, which in Germany was labelled the faculty of philosophy, started demanding contributions to research, [19] attested by a dissertation, for the award of their final degree, which was labelled Doctor of Philosophy abbreviated as Ph.
Whereas in the Middle Ages the arts faculty had a set curriculum, phd thesis university of, based upon the trivium and the quadriviumby the 19th century it had come to house all the courses of study in subjects now commonly referred to as sciences and humanities.
These reforms proved extremely successful, and fairly quickly the German universities started attracting phd thesis university of students, notably from the United States. The American students would go to Germany to obtain a PhD after having studied for a bachelor's degrees at an American college.
Phd thesis university of influential was this practice that it was imported to the United States, phd thesis university of, where in Yale University started granting the PhD degree to younger students who, after having obtained the bachelor's degree, had completed a prescribed course of graduate study and successfully defended a thesis or dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities.
The PhD degree and similar awards spread across Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries, phd thesis university of. The degree was introduced in France inreplacing diplomas as the highest academic degree; into Russia inwhen the Doktor Nauk degree, roughly equivalent to a PhD, gradually started replacing the specialist diplomaroughly equivalent to the MA, as the highest academic degree; and in Italy inwhen PhDs gradually started replacing the Laurea as the highest academic degree.
Research degrees first appeared in the UK in the late 19th century in the shape of the Doctor of Science DSc or ScD and other such "higher doctorates. The first higher doctorate in the modern sense was Durham University 's DSc, phd thesis university of, introduced in These phd thesis university of, however, very advanced degrees, phd thesis university of, rather than research-training degrees at the PhD level— Harold Jeffreys said that getting a Cambridge ScD was "more or less equivalent to being proposed for the Royal Society.
Finally, inthe current PhD degree was introduced, along the lines of the American and German model, and quickly became popular with both British and foreign students. In the English but not the Scottish universities, the Faculty of Arts had become dominant by the early 19th century. Indeed, the higher faculties had largely atrophied, since medical training had shifted to teaching hospitals, [27] the legal training for the common law system was provided by the Inns of Court with some minor exceptions, see Doctors' Commonsand few students undertook formal study in theology.
This contrasted with the situation in the continental European universities at the time, where phd thesis university of preparatory role of the Faculty of Philosophy or Arts was to a great extent taken over by secondary education: in modern France, the Baccalauréat is the examination taken at the end of secondary studies.
The reforms at the Humboldt University transformed the Faculty of Philosophy or Arts and its more recent successors such as the Faculty of Sciences from a lower faculty into one on a par with the Faculties of Law and Medicine. Similar developments occurred in many other continental European universities, phd thesis university of, and at least until reforms in the early 21st century, many European countries e.
To this day, this is also still the case phd thesis university of the pontifical degrees in theology and canon law; for instance, in sacred theologythe degrees are Bachelor of Sacred Theology STBphd thesis university of, Licentiate of Sacred Theology STLand Doctor of Sacred Theology STDand in canon law : Bachelor of Canon Law JCBLicentiate of Canon Law JCLand Doctor of Canon Law JCD.
Until the midth century, advanced degrees were not a criterion for professorships at most colleges. That began to change as the more ambitious scholars at major schools went to Germany for 1 to 3 years to obtain a PhD in the sciences or humanities. InYale awarded the first three earned PhDs in North America to Eugene SchuylerArthur Williams Wrightphd thesis university of, and James Morris Whiton, [30] although honorary PhDs had been awarded in the US for almost a decade, with Bucknell University awarding the first to Ebenezer Newton Elliott in In the next two decades, New York University, phd thesis university of, the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard, and Princeton also began granting the degree.
Major shifts toward graduate education were foretold by the phd thesis university of of Clark University in which offered only graduate programs and the Johns Hopkins University which focused on its PhD program. By the s, Harvard, Columbia, Michigan and Wisconsin were building major graduate programs, whose alumni were hired by new research universities. ByPhDs were awarded annually, most of them by six universities.
It was no longer necessary to study in Germany. At the start of the 20th century, US universities were held in low regard internationally and many American students were still traveling to Europe for PhDs. The lack of centralised authority meant anyone could start a university and award PhDs.
In Germany, the national government funded the universities and the research programs of the leading professors. It was impossible for professors who were not approved by Berlin to train graduate students. In the United States, by contrast, private universities and state universities alike were independent of the federal government.
Independence was high, but funding was low. The breakthrough came from private foundations, which began regularly supporting research in science and history; large corporations sometimes supported engineering programs. The postdoctoral fellowship was established by the Rockefeller Foundation in Meanwhile, phd thesis university of, the leading universities, in cooperation with the learned societies, set up a network of scholarly journals. After World War II, state universities across the country expanded greatly in undergraduate enrollment, and eagerly added research programs leading to masters or doctorate degrees.
Their graduate faculties had to have a suitable record of publication and research grants. Late in the 20th century, "publish or perish" became increasingly important in colleges and smaller universities.
Detailed requirements for the award of a PhD degree vary throughout the world and even from school to school. It is usually required for the student to hold an Honours degree or a Master's Degree with high academic standing, in order to be considered for a PhD program.
In other countries such as the UK there is generally no such condition, phd thesis university of, though this varies by university and field. In order to submit a successful PhD admission application, copies of academic transcripts, letters of recommendation, a research proposal, and a personal statement are often required. Most universities also invite for a special interview before admission. A candidate must submit a project, thesis, or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed context.
In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university; in other countries, the dissertation is examined by a panel of expert examiners who stipulate whether the dissertation is in principle passable and any phd thesis university of that need to be addressed before the dissertation can be passed. Some universities in the non- English -speaking world have begun adopting similar standards to those of the anglophone PhD degree for their research doctorates see the Bologna process.
A PhD student or candidate is conventionally required to study on campus under close supervision. With the popularity of distance education and e-learning technologies, phd thesis university of, some universities now accept students enrolled into a distance education part-time mode. In a " sandwich PhD" program, PhD candidates do not spend their entire study period at the same university.
Instead, the PhD candidates spend the first and last periods of the program at their home universities and in between conduct research at another institution or field research. A PhD confirmation is a preliminary presentation or lecture that a PhD candidate presents to faculty and possibly other interested members. The confirmation lecture can be seen as a trial run for the final public defense, though faculty members at this stage can still largely influence the direction of the research.
At the end of the lecture, the PhD candidate can be seen as "confirmed" — faculty members give their approval and trust that the study is well directed and will with high probability result in the candidate being successful.
In the United States, this is generally called advancing to Candidacy, the confirmation event being called the Candidacy Examination.
A career in academia generally requires a PhD, though, in some countries, it is possible to reach relatively high positions without a doctorate. In North America, professors are increasingly being required to have a PhD, and the percentage of faculty with a PhD may be used as a university ratings measure. The motivation may also include increased salarybut in many cases, this is not the result.
Research by Bernard H. Casey of the University of Warwick, Phd thesis university of. While this is a small return to the individual or even an overall deficit when tuition and lost earnings during training are accounted forhe claims there are significant benefits to society for the extra research training.
PhD students may need to take on debt to undertake their degree. A PhD is also required in some positions phd thesis university of academia, such as research jobs in major international agencies. In some cases, the Executive Directors of some types of foundations may be expected to hold a PhD [ citation needed ].
A PhD is sometimes felt to be a necessary qualification in certain areas of employment, such as in foreign policy think-tanks: U. News wrote in that "[i]f having a master's degree at the minimum is de rigueur in Washington's foreign policy world, it is no wonder many are starting to feel that the Phd thesis university of is a necessary escalation, another case of costly signaling to potential employers.
The Economist published an article in citing various criticisms against the state of PhDs. These included a prediction by economist Richard B. According to the article, only the fastest developing countries e. China or Brazil have a shortage of PhDs. The US higher education system often offers little incentive to move students through PhD programs quickly and may even provide incentive to slow them down. To counter this problem, the United States introduced the Doctor phd thesis university of Arts degree in with seed money from the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
The aim of the Doctor of Arts degree was to shorten the time needed to complete the degree by focusing on pedagogy over research, phd thesis university of, although the Doctor of Arts still contains a significant research component.
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Expert book binding, specializing in thesis binding and dissertation binding, we have the expertise and experience to meet your bookbinding needs A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ph.D., or DPhil; Latin philosophiae doctor or doctor philosophiae) is the most common degree at the highest academic level awarded following a course of study. PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Because it is an earned research degree, those studying for a PhD are required to produce original research Analysis of PhD Theses. Over a three-year time period, Dr Ian Brailsford, a then Postgraduate Learning Adviser at the University of Auckland, analysed doctoral thesis submitted to his university’s library. The PhD theses which formed the basis of his analysis were produced between to and showed
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